Globalisation – a process that sets the pace of the 21st century – is being shaped by increasingly interconnected international actors. In recent decades, cyberspace has been at the centre of geopolitical conflict and this digital landscape has not escaped the reach of hybrid threats, among them disinformation, which can be used as a weapon of war or a tool for malicious interference by those who wish to interfere in another nation’s internal affairs.
Disinformation, intentional or not, has become one of the principal threats to the stability of liberal democracies. The Foro de Desinformación 2025 (Disinformation Forum 2025), held on May 12 at the Centro Cultural Recoleta Cultural Centre in Buenos Aires, brought together diplomats and international experts who analysed strategies for countering this phenomenon. They also stressed the importance of safeguarding one of the cornerstones of democratic systems: freedom of expression.
Protecting that right also means finding a proper balance and avoiding censorship – one of the main challenges facing those that promote truth, among them journalism. The profession is going through, in the words of one participant, “the worst crisis in its history.” At the very least, it is facing a process of “delegitimisation” driven by certain sectors, including the national government of President Javier Milei.
In the context of a global information crisis, the struggle to control and secure cyberspace has become a top priority for many nations – particularly during elections and key political processes, when national borders are often more porous.
Poison for democracy
The forum was opened by Laura Alonso, spokesperson for Buenos Aires City Mayor Jorge Macri, who described disinformation as “poison” for “democratic coexistence.”
Alonso, the former head of Argentina’s Anti-Corruption Office, said City Hall is committed to defending democratic values, respect for dissent and freedom of expression and urged joint efforts to prevent the manipulation of information by “malicious actors.” I
The “fabrication of truth” by external forces pollutes public debate and erodes trust in democratic institutions, argued the spokesperson, highlighting the importance of independent, professional journalism – a journalism that operates ethically and rigorously, and is unafraid to ask uncomfortable questions of those in power.
“It’s essential that journalists continue their work with autonomy, without becoming victims of lies, insults or attacks,” she said.
Alonso’s remarks echoed wider concerns about attacks on journalism by figures close to President Javier Milei, whose regular attacks on the press and individual journalists have drawn scrutiny. Recently, he filed legal action against journalists Ari Lijalad, Carlos Pagni and Viviana Canosa for “slander and libel” — adding them to the list of those targeted by the President.
Other victims include Clarín journalist Alejandro Alfie, whose case is currently before the courts.
“The government is deploying disinformation mechanisms by attacking professional journalism through its state and para-state communications apparatus, which aims to restrict freedom of expression and press freedom,” said Alfie, speaking to Perfil on the sidelines of the event.
Interference in cyberspace
One of the key topics at the forum was the growing role of foreign actors in democratic processes through information manipulation. Stewart Ross Wheeler, Canada’s ambassador to Argentina and Paraguay, shared details of how his country was targeted by foreign interference ahead of its 2019 and 2021 federal elections.
“Foreign interference is a real threat,” said Wheeler, explaining how malicious actors online sought to undermine Canadian sovereignty and further polarise society. Although the integrity of the elections was preserved, the Canadian government subsequently introduced new measures to bolster democratic institutions, aware that the threat is ongoing.
Yurii Klymenko, Ukraine’s ambassador to Argentina, pointed the finger at Russia, noting that Moscow had “turned information into a weapon.” Since 2014, he said, Ukraine has suffered not only military aggression but also a systematic “information war” waged by the Russian Federation.
According to Klymenko, Russia’s disinformation campaigns aim not only to delegitimise the Ukrainian government but also to dehumanise its people and justify acts of violence – including war crimes and genocide. He stressed that international cooperation is vital in responding to these attacks, and called for greater sharing of experience and enhanced cyber defence capabilities.
Pelayo Castro Zuzuárregui, a representative of the European Union, also addressed the issue, warning that disinformation is a tool used by authoritarian governments to “exploit internal divisions, erode trust in democratic institutions and, ultimately, polarise societies.”
The Spanish diplomat cautioned that this is not an isolated phenomenon, but a systematic strategy, led primarily by foreign governments, aimed at manipulating the information space and undermining sovereign decisions.
Global phenomenon
The forum also explored the complex nature of disinformation, which cannot be understood as a uniform phenomenon. In a first panel grouping, Amador Sánchez Rico, the European Union’s ambassador to Argentina, explained that disinformation seeks above all to “polarise societies and exploit moments of crisis, such as elections.” In his view, it is not an isolated string of attacks, but a more coordinated, strategic effort to weaken trust in democratic processes and empower extremist voices.
Sánchez Rico emphasised that this “does not mean censoring or policing ideas, but rather protecting and guaranteeing the conditions for a free and transparent debate to flourish.” His approach departs from authoritarian practices of censorship and instead focuses on preserving the information space so that lies can be countered through greater transparency and access to information.
Paola Tubaro, a French disinformation expert, added an important nuance to the debate by pointing out that not all forms of disinformation are alike. “There is content that is false and intended to cause harm – and other content that is false but spread without malice, due to error,” she explained.
Tubaro stressed the importance of understanding the context in which such content circulates, as well as the economic incentive for the owners of social media platforms that enables disinformation to go viral. “The business model of the internet rewards attention, and that fuels the spread of problematic content,” she added.
This highlights a critical point: disinformation is not only a political phenomenon, but also an economic one.
Changing times
One of the forum’s most pressing concerns was the impact of new technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), on the spread of disinformation.
Claudio Jacquelin, vice-president of the FOPEA press organsiation and a journalist at the La Nación newspaper, warned that current technologies such as AI and social media “make us doubt not only how facts are interpreted, but whether they happened at all.”
This is crucial, he noted, because the creation and distribution of fake news has become so sophisticated that it is increasingly difficult to distinguish between real and manipulated content.
Jacquelin also warned of the dangers of the systematic delegitimisation of journalism – a phenomenon that undermines public trust in the media. He stressed that “professional journalism is a vital actor for civic freedom and democratic life.”
He lamented the fact that professional journalists – particularly those who challenge the powerful or reveal uncomfortable truths – are subject to constant attacks online, while outlets that promote polarising narratives enjoy greater visibility.
According to Jacquelin, this sustained assault on journalism, combined with job insecurity and the need to juggle multiple roles, represents “perhaps the worst crisis in the history of modern journalism” – a crisis that ultimately threatens democracy itself.
Changing times
One of the forum’s most pressing concerns was the impact of new technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), on the spread of disinformation.
Claudio Jacquelin, vice-president of the FOPEA press organsiation and a journalist at the La Nación newspaper, warned that current technologies such as AI and social media “make us doubt not only how facts are interpreted, but whether they happened at all.”
This is crucial, he noted, because the creation and distribution of fake news has become so sophisticated that it is increasingly difficult to distinguish between real and manipulated content.
Jacquelin also warned of the dangers of the systematic delegitimisation of journalism – a phenomenon that undermines public trust in the media. He stressed that “professional journalism is a vital actor for civic freedom and democratic life.”
He lamented the fact that professional journalists – particularly those who challenge the powerful or reveal uncomfortable truths – are subject to constant attacks online, while outlets that promote polarising narratives enjoy greater visibility.
According to Jacquelin, this sustained assault on journalism, combined with job insecurity and the need to juggle multiple roles, represents “perhaps the worst crisis in the history of modern journalism” – a crisis that ultimately threatens democracy itself.
Despite the scale of the challenge, the forum also made clear that the solution to disinformation does not lie in censorship or curbs on freedom of expression. In the words of Tomás Napolitano, deputy head of mission at the French Embassy in Argentina, “disinformation is a transnational phenomenon that spreads rapidly across social media.”
For that reason, he stressed that “the only legitimate response to lies must be more information.” This principle – one echoed by many participants – calls for stronger media literacy, greater transparency and access to verified information, and enhanced international cooperation.
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